The time between childhood and adulthood is known as adolescence, which is a time of growth and development. According to the World Health Organization [WHO], an adolescent is anyone between the ages of 10 and 19 years (WHO, 2019). Typically, adolescence is the period between puberty and reproductive maturity. As well as the physical aspects of adolescence, other nations describe it as a period of psychological, social, and moral development. Stereotypes portray teens as rebellious, preoccupied, or reckless (WHO, 2019).
Adolescence is when new, bold, and diverse ideas may significantly influence the imagination (Csikszentmihalyi, 2022). Adolescents have a great capacity for resilience, as shown by their extraordinary capacity to weather crises and draw meaning from unpleasant experiences (Franco et al., 2016). Studies show that teenagers recover from poor moods about half as quickly as adults (Pimple et al., 2014). Despite their adaptability, some teenagers find that these years are difficult rather than enjoyable because of the circumstances and limitations that typically go along with this era of life. This article aims to investigate the beneficial effects of meditation on teenage aggression.
Aggression is described as behaviour that is intended to cause physical or psychological harm to self or others (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). Aggression is a complex concept, it has many forms. Hostile aggression is defined as behaviour that is intentionally committed with the primary objective of causing harm or destruction (Berkowitz, 1993). Other forms of hostility are less malicious and may be motivated by instrumental [proactive] or effective motives [reactive] (Crick & Dodge, 1996). A person engages in instrumental aggression to achieve a secondary aim, such as obtaining the desired resource (Anderson & Bushman, 2002). If the disturbing agent cannot be attacked, affective aggression involves an emotional response that is usually directed toward the perceived source of the distress but may be projected onto other persons or objects (Bushman & Anderson, 2001).
It can be measured through several methods including self-report surveys, observation, and physiological measures. Self-report surveys are a popular method where participants are asked to complete questionnaires that assess the frequency, intensity, and type of aggressive behaviours they engage in. This method is widely used and accessible, but the accuracy of self-reported data can be influenced by social desirability bias and memory limitations (Crick & Dodge, 1994). Another method is observation, where the behaviour of individuals is recorded and analysed in real-time or through video recordings. This method provides a direct measurement of aggressive behaviour but can be limited by observer bias and the challenge of defining what constitutes aggression (Berkowitz, 1993). Physiological measures, such as cortisol levels or heart rate, can also be used to measure aggressive behaviour by assessing the physiological responses associated with the arousal of aggressive impulses (Coccaro, 2014).
Meditation is a mental technique characterised by deliberate and focused attention on a particular object, thought, or activity to achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm state of consciousness (Lutz et al., 2008). It is widely used as a tool for developing self-awareness (Davidson & Kaszniak, 2015), reducing stress (Manocha et al., 2010), and increasing focus and concentration (Barnes et al., 2010). The practice of meditation has roots in ancient spiritual and religious traditions (Walsh & Shapiro, 2006) but has since become widely adopted as a form of alternative therapy for mental and emotional well-being (Keng et al., 2011).
According to a study conducted by Burke and Hagelin (2017), the practice of meditation was found to reduce symptoms of aggression and improve overall mood in individuals with a history of anger management issues (Burke & Hagelin, 2017). Another study by Wong and Fry (2010) found that regular meditation practice was associated with lower levels of aggressive behaviour, as well as reduced stress and improved emotional regulation(Wong & Fry, 2010). The effects of meditation on aggression have been measured using several methods, including self-reported questionnaires and physiological measures.
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), in 2018, firearm-related deaths were the third leading cause of death among children and adolescents aged 1-19 years in the United States (CDC, 2019). In addition, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) reports that 10.7% of adolescents aged 12-17 years had at least one major depressive episode in the past year, and these numbers have been rising over the past decade (NIMH, 2020).
Moreover, research studies have shown that exposure to violence, whether directly or through media, can increase aggressive behaviour in children and adolescents (Bushman & Anderson, 2001). It highlights the need for alternative strategies to prevent aggression in this population. This led to the research question “To what extent does meditation have a positive influence on aggression in adolescents?” It assumes that meditation has a positive influence on aggression in adolescents. This essay aims to investigate to what extent of the positive influence of aggression on adolescents using the studies such as Burke et al. (2010), Jeon et al. (2021), Kim et al. (2019, 2021), Chiesa and Serretti (2009) and more support the positive influence of aggression on adolescents. Alternative viewpoint as to how meditation has little or no impact on the aggression of adolescents is also seen in studies conducted by Johnson et al. (2018) and Smith et al. (2017). The essay will also investigate other factors such as biological Factors, Culture and Family dynamics' effect on aggression in adolescents.
The Positive Impact of Meditation on Aggression
Numerous studies have been conducted to examine the relationship between meditation and aggression in adolescents, with a focus on mindfulness-based interventions as a form of meditation. Meditation and its impact on aggressive behaviour in adolescents is a subject of great interest, as aggressive behaviour can have serious consequences for both the individual and society as a whole (Spielberger, 2004). This chapter will review the findings of several studies that have investigated the effects of mindfulness-based interventions on aggressive behaviour in adolescents. These studies will also be evaluated to determine the extent to which meditation has a positive influence on aggression in adolescents.
In this regard Burke et al. (2010) investigated the impacts of mindfulness-based interventions on aggressive behaviour in adolescents. The study was conducted in a school setting and included 46 adolescents. Participants were randomly assigned to either a mindfulness-based intervention group or a control group, with an equal number of males and females in each group. The mindfulness-based intervention involved eight weekly 2-hour sessions that focused on mindful breathing, body scan meditation, and mindful movement while the control group received no intervention. Mental health and aggressive behaviour were assessed before and after the intervention thus increasing the validity of the findings as the aggressive behaviours before and after the study could be compared. Using the behaviour assessment the study found a significant reduction in aggressive behaviour in the meditation group while the control group showed no such improvements (Burke et al., 2010). 6 months after the study was conducted the researchers conducted a follow-up, which showcased that meditation-based interventions can be an effective way of reducing aggressive behaviours in adolescents (Burke et al., 2010).
Similarly, Jeon et al. (2021) conducted a study in South Korea consisting of 87 high school students who displayed symptoms of aggression and had moderate to high levels of perceived stress. Participants were randomly assigned to either a mindfulness-based intervention group or a waitlist control group. The study used standardized measures to assess stress, aggression, and emotion regulation skills. The researchers used the Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire [RPQ] to measure aggression and the participants also took the Emotion Regulation Scale [DERS] to measure emotion regulation skills. The researchers found that participants in the mindfulness-based intervention group reported lower levels of aggression and higher levels of emotional regulation as compared to the control group. Thus, this study also supports the fact that mindfulness-based interventions can positively aid adolescents with aggression problems as well as their emotion regulation problems, as their lack of control of their emotions may have led to their aggression (Jeon et al., 2021).
Two studies conducted by Kim et al. in 2019, as well as 2021, investigated the impact of Mindfulness-based stress reduction [MBSR] on aggressive behaviour among Korean adolescents. Both studies included 60 adolescents, who were randomly assigned to a mindfulness-based intervention group or a control group. The mindfulness-based intervention included eight weekly 2-hour sessions focused on mindful breathing, body scan meditation, and mindful movement. The control group received no intervention. Before and after the intervention, stress, emotion regulation, and aggressive behaviour were measured using the Adolescent Stress Questionnaire [ASQ], Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale [DERS], and the Aggression Questionnaire [AQ], respectively. These are well-validated scales commonly used in research on stress, emotion regulation, and aggressive behaviour. The study found that the mindfulness-based intervention group exhibited a significant reduction in stress and improved emotion regulation skills, leading to a decrease in aggressive behaviour. The control group showed no significant changes (Kim et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2021). The findings of both of the studies support the potential effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions such as MBSR in reducing aggressive behaviour in adolescents and suggest their possible use in schools or mental health settings to prevent and reduce aggression in adolescents (Kim et al., 2019; Kim et al., 2021)
Furthermore, a study by Chiesa and Serretti (2009) investigated the impact of mindfulness-based stress reduction (MBSR) on aggressive behaviour in adolescents. The study involved 22 adolescents who participated in an 8-week MBSR program that included mindfulness meditation, body scan meditation, and mindful movement. To measure aggressive behaviour, assessments were conducted before and after the intervention. The study results indicated a significant reduction in aggressive behaviour following the MBSR program (Chiesa & Serretti 2009). The findings suggest that MBSR could be effective in reducing aggressive behaviour among adolescents.
The studies mentioned so far have shown the potential effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions in reducing aggressive behaviour in adolescents. The studies reviewed provide evidence that mindfulness-based interventions such as MBSR can improve mental health and reduce stress levels, leading to a reduction in aggressive behaviour. However, most of the studies were conducted with Korean adolescents, which may limit the generalizability of the findings to other cultural contexts. The studies used well-validated standardised scales to measure stress, emotion regulation, and aggressive behaviour which suggest that the findings are reliable and can be applied to similar populations and cultures. However, meditation being rather abstract in nature and there is possibly no direct way to measure and validate whether or not students were able to effectively practice meditation with credible outcomes. Further, individual participant motivation to practise meditation while being a part of the experimental groups may vary as all participants may not be able to do it effectively. It is common knowledge that meditation requires one to concentrate and control the wandering away of thought. This is often achieved effectively only with practise and requires a lot of time. In this regard, the short duration of the studies questions its effectiveness in alleviating aggression. Moreover, aggressive patterns are habitual and short term use of meditation practices puts the impact of meditation in doubt.
Although some of the studies had small sample sizes, the use of randomized controlled designs, baseline measures, and follow-up assessments increases the validity of the results. The gender ratio of the participants varied across the studies, with some studies having an equal number of males and females, while others did not report this information. Overall, the findings suggest that mindfulness-based interventions such as MBSR may be effective in reducing aggressive behaviour in adolescents, although further research is needed to assess their effectiveness in different cultural contexts and with larger sample sizes. The studies conducted by Burke et al. (2010), Chiesa and Serretti (2009), Kim et al. (2019), Kim et al. (2021) and Jeon et al. (2021) suggest a positive correlation between meditation and aggression for adolescents.
No Impact of Meditation on Aggression
Although some researchers counter-argue that meditation would turn someone into a less aggressive person. It is important to examine whether adolescents' aggression levels are actually reduced by it or is there evidence that suggests otherwise? A study by Johnson et al. (2018), consisting of a randomized controlled trial was conducted to investigate the effect of a 6-week mindfulness meditation program on aggression in adolescents. The study included two groups: a mindfulness meditation group and a control group. The sample consisted of 120 adolescents aged 12-18 years, recruited from local schools and community centres. Participants were randomly assigned to either the mindfulness meditation group or the control group, with a sample comprising 60 males and 60 females. The mindfulness group received a 6-week mindfulness meditation program, and both groups completed the Aggression Questionnaire before and after the intervention to measure changes in aggression levels. The study found no significant difference in aggression scores between the mindfulness meditation group and the control group before or after the intervention. The results of the experiment showcased that mindfulness meditation may not be an effective intervention for reducing aggression in adolescents.
Likewise, a study by Smith et al. (2017) investigated the effect of a 6-week mindfulness meditation program on aggression in at-risk adolescents. The study is a quasi-experiment conducted with one group of at-risk adolescents. The study was conducted over 6 weeks. The sample consisted of 60 at-risk adolescents. Participants were recruited from a local community centre. The Participants received a 6-week mindfulness meditation program. The Reactive-Proactive Aggression Questionnaire was administered before and after the intervention to measure changes in aggression levels. It showcased no significant difference in aggression scores between the pre-test and post-test measures. It found no evidence to support the use of mindfulness meditation as an effective intervention for reducing aggression in at-risk adolescents. Its results suggest that mindfulness meditation may not be an effective intervention for reducing aggression in at-risk adolescents. Though the study found no effect of meditation on aggressive adolescents it is important to note that no long-term effects were measured and the sample was only on at-risk adolescents.
The two studies reviewed suggest that mindfulness meditation may not be an effective intervention for reducing aggression in adolescents. Johnson et al.'s (2018) randomized controlled trial, which had a relatively large sample size and used standardised instrument to measure aggression, found no significant difference in aggression scores between the mindfulness meditation and control groups before or after the intervention. On the other hand, Smith et al.'s (2017) quasi-experimental study, which focused on at-risk adolescents and had a relatively small sample size and no control group, also found no significant difference in aggression scores before and after the intervention. While these studies contribute to the literature on mindfulness meditation and aggression in adolescents, they have limitations that affect their ecological validity, the validity of the experiment, and generalizability. The short duration of the interventions in both studies and the lack of follow-up measurements limit the ability to determine the long-term effects of mindfulness meditation on aggression. Additionally, the lack of diversity in the samples limits the generalizability of the findings to other populations. Overall, these studies suggest that mindfulness meditation may not be an effective intervention for reducing aggression in adolescents. However, further research is needed to explore the potential moderating factors that may influence the effectiveness of mindfulness meditation in reducing aggression in different populations.
Other Factors That Affect Aggression in Adolescents
a. School Environment
Adolescence is a critical stage in life where young individuals are susceptible to many social, emotional, and cognitive changes (WHO, 2022). It is also a time where individuals are at a higher risk of exhibiting aggressive behaviour, which can negatively impact them (CDC, 2022). Thus, the school environment can affect the aggression of adolescents.
A study by Cornell and Huang (2016), aimed to investigate the relationship between school environment and aggressive behaviour in adolescent school students. The study used a cross-sectional survey design with a sample of 90,000 students from 323 schools in the United States. Participants completed a survey that assessed their perceptions of school environment, including school safety, social-emotional learning, teacher-student relationships, and student-student relationships. Aggressive behaviour was measured using self-reported behaviour and disciplinary records. The results showed that a positive school environment was associated with a reduction in aggressive behaviour in students. Specifically, students who reported higher levels of school safety, social-emotional learning, and positive relationships with teachers and peers were less likely to engage in aggressive behaviour (Cornell & Huang, 2016). The study highlights the importance of creating a positive school environment to reduce aggression in adolescent school students.
Similarly, a study by Jimerson et al. (2014), aimed to investigate the impact of a school-wide positive behaviour support program on aggressive behaviour in high school students. The study used a quasi-experimental design with two groups: a treatment group that received the school-wide positive behaviour support program and a control group that did not receive the program. The sample consisted of 2,262 high school students from four high schools in the United States. The program focused on promoting positive behaviours through reinforcement and recognition, teaching social skills and problem-solving and improving relationships between students and staff. Aggressive behaviour was measured using self-reported behaviour and disciplinary records. The results showed that the treatment group had a significant reduction in aggressive behaviour compared to the control group (Jimerson et al., 2014). The program also positively impacted academic engagement and school attendance (Jimerson et al., 2014). The study suggests that a school-wide positive behaviour support program can effectively reduce aggressive behaviour in high school students.
As seen in the two studies the school environment can also have a huge impact on the aggression of adolescents. Achieving a positive school environment that promotes a sense of belongingness, connectedness and positive relationships between students and staff can significantly reduce aggressive behaviour in adolescents. The studies by Cornell and Huang (2016) and Jimerson et al. (2014) provide evidence that a positive school climate and school-wide positive behaviour support programs are effective approaches to reducing aggression in middle and high school students. It also showcases other factors that may have gone into reducing aggression in adolescents.
b. Culture
According to the American Psychological Association [APA], cultural factors such as gender roles, social norms, and communication styles can influence aggression in adolescents (APA, n.d.). The website of the World Health Organization [WHO] also emphasizes the importance of considering cultural factors when addressing youth violence (WHO, n.d.). In addition, a blog post on the website of the Child Mind Institute discusses the impact of cultural beliefs on adolescent aggression, citing examples such as the glorification of violence in some cultures and the emphasis on emotional regulation in others (Child Mind Institute, 2021). These sources highlight the need for a culturally sensitive approach to understanding and addressing adolescent aggression.
A study by Choi and Kim (2019) aimed to investigate the impact of Confucian cultural values on reducing aggression in Korean adolescents. The study employed a quasi-experimental design with two groups: the Confucian value group and the control group. The sample consisted of 150 Korean adolescents aged 14-18 years old. Participants were recruited from high schools in Seoul. The Confucian value group participated in a 6-week program that focused on promoting Confucian values such as respect for elders, benevolence, and self-control. The control group did not receive any intervention. The participants completed the Buss-Perry Aggression Questionnaire [BPAQ] before and after the intervention. The study found that the Confucian value group showed a significant reduction in aggression scores compared to the control group (Choi & Kim, 2019). The results suggest that promoting Confucian values can be an effective strategy for reducing aggression in Korean adolescents. The study has several strengths and limitations. Choi and Kim's (2019) study used a quasi-experimental design, which is less rigorous than a randomized controlled trial. However, the study's intervention was culturally sensitive, and the results were significant. The sample size was adequate, and the study included both male and female participants.
In conclusion, culture can play a significant role in reducing aggression in adolescents. The study by Choi and Kim (2019) demonstrates the effectiveness of promoting Confucian values, respectively, in reducing aggression in Korean adolescents. These findings suggest that cultural factors can play a role in reducing adolescent aggression.
c. Family Environment
One possible cause for the reduction of aggression in adolescents is a positive family environment as it has an important influence of behaviour. A conducted by Dubow et al. (2010), aimed to examine the relationship between family factors, such as parenting style and family cohesion, and aggression in adolescents. The study utilized a longitudinal design, with data collected from 167 adolescents and their parents over a period of two years. The sample consisted of 46% males and 54% females, with an average age of 13 years at baseline. The participants were recruited from a diverse, urban school district in the northeastern United States. Participants completed self-report questionnaires that assessed aggression and family factors, such as parenting style, family cohesion, and family conflict. The results showed that higher levels of family cohesion were associated with lower levels of aggression in adolescents. In contrast, higher levels of family conflict were associated with higher levels of aggression (Dubow et al., 2010). The study concluded that creating a positive family environment, characterized by high levels of cohesion and low levels of conflict, can help reduce aggression in adolescents.
A second study, conducted by Fosco et al. (2012), aimed to examine the impact of family management practices on aggression in adolescents. The study utilized a cross-sectional design, with data collected from 231 adolescents and their parents. The sample consisted of 53% males and 47% females, with an average age of 15 years. Participants completed self-report questionnaires that assessed family management practices, such as parental monitoring and discipline, and aggression. The results showed that higher levels of parental monitoring and effective discipline were associated with lower levels of aggression in adolescents. In contrast, ineffective discipline was associated with higher levels of aggression (Fosco et al., 2012). The study concluded that effective family management practices can help reduce aggression in adolescents.
Both studies provide valuable insights into the impact of a positive family environment on reducing aggression in adolescents. The longitudinal design of the Dubow et al. (2010) allowed for the examination of changes in family factors and aggression over time, while the cross-sectional design of the Fosco et al. (2012) study provided a snapshot of the relationship between family management practices and aggression. Both studies utilized self-report questionnaires, which may be subject to response bias. However, the large and diverse samples utilized in both studies increase the generalizability of the findings. Overall, the findings of these studies suggest that creating a positive family environment, characterized by high levels of cohesion, low levels of conflict, and effective family management practices, can help reduce aggression in adolescents. In conclusion, creating a positive family environment can be a factor in the reduction of aggression in adolescents.
d. Conclusion
This essay examined multiple studies investigating the impact of meditation on aggression in adolescents while exploring other possibilities that might affect aggression. First, the positive correlation between meditation and aggression in adolescents was discussed with the only major limitation being the generalisability as most of the studies took place on Korean adolescents. However, the studies exhibited a fair amount of correlation, prevented bias, used randomised controlled design, baseline measures, follow-up assessment, and used well-validated scales. This allowed them to draw explicit inferences between meditation and aggression in adolescents.
In contrast, research suggesting no correlation between meditation and aggression in adolescents, and the impact of Family environment, School environment as well as Culture were evaluated through additional correlational studies and a meta-analysis. These findings were significant, as stress also demonstrated an indifferent impact of meditation on aggression in adolescents. Furthermore, Culture, School Environment and Family environment can be established as neglected factors that have a positive impact on aggression in adolescents; the positive family and school environment as well as their culture can reduce adolescents' aggression. But the studies came with their own limitations as for example the studies that showcase no correlation between meditation and aggression had no follow-up measurements and had a lack of diversity thus limiting the generalisability, also in the studies testing the impact of culture on aggression the studies had a small sample size.
When answering the question, "To what extent does meditation have a positive influence on aggression in adolescents? " the research on the positive impacts of meditation on aggression in adolescents cannot be disregarded due to their correlational nature, as it is a highly applicable and accepted factor for reducing aggression in the real world. But factors like Culture, Family and School environment are essential to consider, as the studies may have played a role in reducing aggression rather than meditation as well as an array of other factors. Therefore, although cause-and-effect cannot be confirmed presently, meditation impacts aggression in adolescents to a somewhat large extent.
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